The Pashtuns
The Pashtuns, or Pushtuns, make up approximately 44% of the population of Afghanistan, and represent the ethnic majority. Though their origin is unclear, their legends say that they are the descendants of Afghana, grandson of King Saul. Most scholars, however, believe that the Pashtuns probably arose from an intermingling of ancient and subsequent invaders.
Pashtuns are Caucasians, of medium height, with strong, straight noses and black hair. Many Pashtuns have dark eyes, although there is also a high incidence of blue, green, and gray eyes: The young girl with the unforgettable blue eyes featured in many National Geographic publications and posters is a Pashtun, or Pashtana, the feminine form. The language of the Pashtuns is Pashto ( also spelled Pushto, Pushtu, Pashtu, and sometimes Paxto).
When Westerners caution against optimism in battle against the Afghans, it is the Pashtuns they have in mind. The 'Afghans' that the British futilely battled against in the 19th century were the Pashtuns. The majority of the mujaheddin ('warriors in a holy war') who ultimately drove the Soviets out of Afghanistan were Pashtuns. Much of the civil war that followed the Soviet withdrawal was fought between rival Pashtun leaders, who had amassed weapons and followers during their fight against the Soviets.
Pashtuns are fierce fighters and are known for their marksmanship. They are accustomed to hardship and poverty and can prevail in conditions that would easily defeat others. At the same time, though deeply dedicated to their religious beliefs, they also cultivate nonreligious cultural traditions. They are poets with a wonderful oral literature who can quote poetry by the hour.
The Pashtuns are Sunni Muslims, but their Islamic beliefs and behavior have often been tempered and changed by cultural values. Distinctive tribal customs and traditions form an integral part of the Pashtun society. Pashtun cultural values are reflected in a code of ethics called simply Pashto in Pashto, and Pashtunwali ('the way of the Pashtun') by non-Pashtuns.
Pashtun History
Warfare is the history of the Pashtun people. Either internally or against foreign invaders. It is thought that Pashtun tribes finished formulation between the 14th and 16th Centuries as result of the mixing of Iranian, Indian, and Turkic peoples. A feudal society formed and persists to this day. During the 18th Century, Ghaljis tribes led revolts against Persian rule. This was followed by three victorious wars with Great Britain (1838-42, 1878-80, & 1919). In the first two wars the Pashtun united with other ethnicities against the British, and in 1842 an entire British army of 14,000 was destroyed. Following the Russian Revolution, Afghanistan was the first nation to recognize the Soviet Union, and on February 28, 1928, the Soviet-Afghan treaty was ratified. This ironic considering the Pashtun would again unite and drive the Soviets out of Afghanistan in the 1980-1989 Soviet-Afghan war.
Pashtun Tribes
Pashtuns are divided into tribes, kaum or qabili, and sub-divided into sub-tribes or clans. Tribes usually join a tribal confederation, a significant number are named after a legendary ancestor, to which the suffix khel (kin) or zai (son) is attached. Qays Abd' al-Rashid Pathan is the ancestor of all Pashtuns. They also claim lineage from King Saul (first King of Israel). The three sons of al-Rashid Pathan are Sarban, Bitan, and Ghurghusht. Sarban's eldest son was Sharkhbun and his descendents are found in South Afghanistan. Sarban's other son, Kharshbun, has descendants in the Peshawar valley. The Pashtun's of west Afghanistan are called the Durranis and are descended from Sharkhbun's son Abdalis. The Pashtun in Pakistan are descended from Kharshbun's son Yusufzay, and his descendents live north of Peshawar. The Shinwaris, Pashtun in the Jalalabad vicinity, are descended fron Kharshbun's son Kasi. Bitan had a daughter, Bibi Mato who married a foreigner named Husayn Ghur. She concieved an illegitimate son before they were wed and the Ghaljis tribe is descended from them. This accounts for the lower status of the Ghaljis among the Pashto tribes. Pathan's third son was Ghurghusht and two tribes are descended from him; the Kakars and the Safis.
The two main tribal confederations in Afghanistan are the Durranis and the Ghaljis, while a third, the Mohmand confederation, spans both Afghanistan and Pakistan.
The fourth branch of the Pashto are found throughout western Pakistan. They are descendants of Karran, who was either Pathan's fourth son, or was adopted by Pathan. The tribes claiming Karran as an ancestor are the; Afridis, Bangash (Shi'a), Khataks, Mahsuds, Mangals, and the Waziris.
The overwhelming majority of Pashtuns are Sunni Muslims with the exception of the Bangash tribe in Pakistan, which are Shi'a.
Durrani
The Durrani are the most powerful and influential tribal confederation in Afghanistan. The King of Afghanistan has always been a Durrani. The Durrani are divided into two branches; the Zirak and the Panjpao. Tribes within the Zirak branch include the Popolzai (east of Kandahar and west of the Helmand River), the Alkozai (east of Kandahar and north of Helmand), the Barakzai (southwest of Kandahar in the Arghestan River Valley), and the Atsakzai (Zamindawar region and along the Kohdaman Ridge). Tribes within the Panjpao branch include the Nurzai (southwest and western Afghanistan), the Alizai (Zamindawar and Helmand), and the Ishaqzai (west of Kandahar, Farah region, and in Seistan).
Ghalji
The Ghalji confederacy is divided into two groups, the Turan (western) and the Burhan (eastern). The Turan include the Nasir, Kharaoci, Hotaki, and Tokhi (Qalat-I Ghilzai) tribes. The Burhan includes the Sulaymen Khel (southeast of Kabal to Jalalabad), the Ali Khel (Mukur region), and the Tarakkis (Mukur) tribes. In the 18th Century, the Ghalji led a series of revolts against the Persian Safavid Empire.
Pashtun Values
Pashtun tribes and clans are nominally led by a Khan or Malik, but his rule is not absolute. The title of khan is usually ascribed to the leader of a tribe, while malik indicates leadership of a clan. All male members of the tribe have a vote in the tribal meeting known as a jirga (council of elders).
Hospitatlity (Malmastiya) is extremely important to the Pashtun. One of the greatest insults to is carry off another man's guest. The revenge of the slighted man is not directed at the guest, but at the man who carried off the guest. Pashtuns love to throw banquets and feasts, and will often offer his best livestock for an honored guest. They will take great pride in the guest praising the quality and variety of the dishes offered. The sanctity of protecting the guest is also very important to the honor of the Pashtun and this is reflected in the concept of Nanawatay or asylum. When a man enters a household he is under the protection of his host. Also, a guest can enter a home and refuse hospitality until he secures the aid or assistance of his host who will then be obliged to assist his guest. It is in this manner that a fugitive can gain the aid of a tribal chief. The strongest form of nanawatay is when a woman sends her veil to one of her male neighbors to ask for his assistance. The refusal of such a request will forever stain the man's honor and he cannot refuse.
Pashtuns are patriotic. When a Pashtun living in a foreign land dies, it is a common for them to request to friends and family that they be buried in a family graveyard in Afghanistan. To make this endeavor less expensive the body will often be dismembered and packed into a smaller coffin. Pashtuns can reconcile themselves to poverty, but cannot tolerate foreign rule. The historical truth in this has been learned the hard way by the Greeks, Persians, Arabs, British, and Russians. When a foreign invader invades Afghanistan all tribal feuds are temporarily suspended. A ceremony may even mark the armistice, however, once the invader is driven from Afghanistan feuds may resume where they left off. This warrior spirit is deeply ingrained and surfaces many times upon examination of Pashtun culture. Even sports is warlike with the most famous example being Buzkashi - the dragging of the goat. A goat or sheep is killed and placed in a circle. Two teams of mounted men then gallop towards the carcass to grab it. The object is to drop the carcass in a circle to score a goal. Games can last as long as four days.
Poetry is also a staple in the Pashtun warrior ethos. Pashtuns often recite poetry to underscore their points in conversation. They also place much emphasis on good manners and politeness.
Pashtun Tribal Law
Tribal laws and customs vary from tribe to tribe, but one widely followed is the code of Isakhel, which establishes the penalties for murder, assault, kidnapping of women, property damage, theft, and other transgressions. Murder is paid for in blood money known as khun and is based upon the victim's standing. Khun for elders and soldiers is the highest. If a man beats his wife to death her father can take up her case and revenge the woman as he would a murder. Dishonoring a murdered person is doubled. It is also customary to return the victim's weapon when paying the khun. Besides paying the khun in currency some tribes accept women and female babies as two-thirds of the khun. Failure to pay the khun could result in tribal warfare based on badal, but if the money is not available and the tribes do not want to go to war a marriage will be arranged with the murderer. He can also be forgiven if grasps the bed of his victim or lies in the grave of a family ancestor.
For assault, the khun depends on whether the person is maimed and whether the maimed part of the body is visible or not.
If a girl is forcibily kidnapped, the compensations is one and one-half khun. If the kidnapped girl consents to marry her kidnapper the khun is then doubled. However, the bride-to-be must obtain her father's permission, otherwise he has the right to kill her.
In case of adultery the husband can kill both his wife and his lover if he catches them in the act. Relatives of the deceased are denied revenge and khun. If a man kidnaps another's wife he must pay seven-fold khun. For rape, the ear or nose of the rapist is cut off.
For arson, the arsonist may pay for the lost property and pay a fine for dishonoring the household. The burning of a nomad's tent is treated more harshly than the burning of a house. The theft of livestock requires khun nine-fold. The destruction of farmland requires four times the value of the field. The illegal diversion of water is also subject to a fine.
Values and Beliefs
Like Arab society, Afghan society is patriarchal, patrilineal, and patrilocal. The head of the family is the paternal grandfather and his called either Mushar or Speengire - “the venerable old man with gray beard”. Likewise, the King is considered the grandfather of the nation, and is held in great reverence. The nuclear family in Afghan society consists of the father and mother, siblings, and half-siblings (when there is more than one wife). The extended family is the major economic and social unit in Pashtun society. The extended family is the nuclear family plus the grandparents, uncles, aunts, and cousins. It is common that an entire village will be populated by one or two extended families.
While almost all Pashtun's are Sunni Muslims, there is a strong belief in evil spirits, the “evil eye”, and the use of talismans for protection. Pashtun folklore believes that evil spirits dwell in graveyards, abandoned houses, river banks, and deserts. The name of God should be invoked when praising a child to avoid attracting the attention of these evil spirits. Pashtun's believe in the “evil eye”, and that certain types of people, especially women, possess the ability to cause bad things to happen. They will go to great lengths to prevent the evil eye by veiling the child or rarely bringing it out in public. Besides women, beggars, criminals, and diseased people are thought to possess the evil eye.
Afghan spirituality leads to suspicion of new technology. An Afghan will tell you that new technology and materialism must be balanced against family bonds and the potential harm against people.
The most festive holiday celebrated by Afghans, and Iranians, is Nawroz, the New Year celebration, which occurs on March 21, the vernal equinox. Literally meaning 'new day,' Nawroz is celebrated with picnics, similar to American cookouts. The festival has its roots in Zoroastrianism, a religion brought from Persia long before the rise of Islam. During the celebrations, lavish meals are prepared. Two dishes, samanak and haft-mehwah are specially cooked for the occasion. Samanak is a dessert made of wheat and sugar that can take two days to prepare. Haft-mehwah consists of seven fruits and nuts that symbolize the coming of spring.
The Afghans have similar attitudes toward gender relations as the Arabs. Women are the custodians of the family honor. To compliment the beauty of a man's wife or daughter can be very insulting. Marriages are arranged by parents with advice from older members of the family. With the exception of the rule of the Taliban, women in Afghanistan have traditionally had more personal freedom than Arab women. They were not required to wear the burqa, and most worked outside right along side their husbands.
To keep women and property within the tribe the custom of marrying men to paternal first cousins is common in a similar fashion as Bint Amm in the Arab world. When a man falls in love with a girl he does not tell his parents but has a friend speak to them on his behalf. The parents then approach the guardians of the girl, and the process of arranging the marriage is long and tedious sometimes taking years. The wedding is held at the bride's parent's house. It is not unusual for the groom to meet his bride for the first time at the wedding ceremony. During a traditional ceremony they may not even look directly at each other, but instead see each other through the reflection of hand held mirrors. After the vows there is celebratory gunfire and music. In rural areas a tradition is still observed where the bedsheets are examined to determine whether the bride was a virgin or not. If it is judged she was not, the husband can kill her and the bride's family has to replace her with a sister.
Islam allows a man to take up to four wives, but this is very rare in Afghanistan. If a man dies a brother of the deceased husband can marry her even if he already has a wife. The wife runs the household and raises the children. She has considerable influence over her husband, but he usually controls family finances. To divorce the man only needs to declare “I divorce thee” three times publicly. The man can remarry immediatley but the woman must wait three months to ensure that she was not newly pregnant at the time of the divorce. The major causes of divorce in Pashtun society are barreness, no son, nagging, and non-payment of the dowry. Women can divorce men for sterility, cruelty, and adultery. One of the greatest insults to a man is the word “Zantalaq” - a man who has divorced his wife. Unmarried people in Afghanistan are rare as marriage is an expectation associated with maturity. Most Pashtun men are married between the ages of 18 to 20, and the women are usually married between the ages of 15 to 17. Because of the harvest, September is the most popular month for weddings in Afghanistan.
If a man falls madly in love with a woman and does not want to wait for the arrangement process to run its course he can propose more directly through a custom called “Ghagkawal”. He goes to her house, stands at the door, and fires his gun into the air. He then asks the tribal elders for her hand in marriage, and the elders approach the girl's father. The man must also ask for forgiveness for his boldness. The father is then put into a tight spot, because refusing the man can lead to tribal feuding.
A practice in some rural Pashtun villages is for communal wet-nursing. These women are called “milk-mothers”. Men and women who share the same “milk-mother” cannot marry.
When a child is born the entire village will celebrate. Messengers travel to spread the news to relatives living in other regions. Men rush out and fire their weapons into the air. The celebration is especially raucous if the baby is a boy for the family line can only be preserved through the males. For the birth of a daughter, a celebration may not be held as they are considered the potential property of others. For the first several months of life, the baby is bound in linen and kept secluded from the public. The naming of the child is done by consultation. The parents will invite relatives over who will suggest names, but ultimately the father, the father's eldest brother, or the grandfather will have the final say. Names or either of great Pashtun heroes or religious names. Religious names are usually chosen by the father or grandfather who open the Koran and name the baby the first name he randomly comes across. A family is not passed on so a father and son can have totally different names if the son is not named for the father.
For boys it is common that the first name is either Abdul, Mohammed, or Ghulam, and for girls common first names are Gul, Nafas, and Shireen. A second name follows the first, and many also have nicknames that are in fact a part of the formal name. Abdul Hameed Gul-Agha literally means Abdul Hameed the “Flower Master”. For a girl with the similar name, you might see Hameeda Shireen Gul meaning “Sweet Flower”. Pashtuns from the Kandahar region prefer names with a color motif. For example, Sheen = blue, Tore=black, Bore=gray, and Zargun=green. Tare Paikaye is girl's name meaning “black-haired”.
The life-stages of Pashtun women are; pre-puberty, post-puberty, married but childless, with child but no son, mother of a son (obtains title of woman), and post menopause. Her value and esteem in the eyes of her peers depends on which stage she is in. Before reaching the age of nine or ten, the mother teaches her daughter how to grind wheat and corn, fetch water, cook, mend and wash clothes, make dung patties, and gossip. Daughters are also expected to look after younger siblings.
Fathers take care of the boys until they are seven when they are circumcised and considered to be on the way to becoming a man. If the family can afford it a feast is thrown in his honor and he is permitted to wear a turban. The youngest son is usually the favorite son, and Pashtun fathers are known to be loving and indulgent. The youngest son sits with the father when entertaining guests. Older sons are expected to help their fathers in the field, and learn to ride, shoot, hunt, and herd. A boy is considered a man between the ages of 10 to 12.
www.atsc.army.mil/crc/ISO6A10L/LessonPlan_TribalisminAfghanistan.rtf -